ARO-HEALING - - Specialist Therapist Aro-healing Revised Complementary Therapy ARC Arochology Therapies Massage Manual Lymphatic Drainage Lymph Sport Sports Behaviour Modification Psychology Naturopathy Herbology Holistic approach integrative medicine alternative complementary product products herbs oils creams herb oil cream AUTHOR BIO AND BOOK SUMMARY touch touching live lives philosophy philosophies science sciences ARC Arochology Complimentary Revised revise aro-healing aro heal healing anthropology biology microbiology anatomy physiology medicine nursing THEORY TECHNIQUE THERAPY theories techniques therapies therapist therapists Acupuncture Acupressure Aromatherapy Reflexology FOLLOWING BOOKS WILL BE MASSAGE AND HEALTH THERAPIES natural skin brighteners recipes condition based maintenance plus lead pipe appearance of colon direct control definition in history php get defined methods vigorous sentence behavioral medicine never confuse education with intelligence condition based maintenance is vigorous plants comply chinese vigorous ceramide c anti wrinkle serum childbearing age aro-healing product products student students questions articles faq psychology anatomy physiology science philosophy therapy technique theory theories techniques sciences therapies aro ARC Arochology Aro-healing Complimentary and Alternative NCCAM effect Book Two Aro-healing Revised Complimentary Therapy Touching Lives - ARC as a Whole Medical System Aro-Technique Products and Product Ranges Book Three Arochology Touching Lives - Therapies, Philosophies and Sciences The Health Science Arochology MASSAGE AND HEALTH THERAPY SERIES Summary This is an extensive research on the founding history of Aro-healing, Aro-healing as a manipulative body-based Therapy - a Massage Health Therapy, the role of Aro-Technique Products and Product Ranges, the Aro-Touch Technique, Senses and Needs, Aro-healings Consultation/Combination Services, Services for Pets and Animals as well as Babies and Children, Therapies and Philosophies, Aro-healing Revised Complimentary Therapy (ARC), ARC Treatment Programs, Touching Lives, a 10 Point Diagram to Balance your Life, Sciences, Introduction to Psychology, Sigmund and Anna Freud, the Health Science Arochology, Implemented Therapies, the Role of Psychology, Arochology's Placebo Therapy, the Arochology Five Hierarchy Ladder, Touching Lives Interpretation, Interpretation of Arochologys Principles, Introduction to Applied Arochology, Research Projects and Adult Content (Sensualism).Man's principal need is to be touched - one of Maslow's hierarchies of needs. Arochology created its own hierarchy. The Arochology Five Breathing, Posture, Treatment, Plan, PlaceboBreathing Technique, Posture Technique, Treatment Program, 10 Point Plan (Sleep, Physical Appearance, Exercise, Eating Habits, Hobbies and Interests, Leisure Time, Time Management, Income, Short-term goals and Long-term goals) and Placebo Therapy (Behavioral Modification).Therapies and Philosophies scrutinized. Aromatherapy, Aromachology, Reflexology, Acupuncture, Mental Telepathy, Hypnosis, Lymphatic Therapy, Color Therapy, Reiki, Yoga, Meditation, Sport Psychology, and many more. Sigmund Freuds psychoanalytical thinking examined - the principle foundation to Arochology. Aro-healing Revised Complimentary Therapy (ARC) - a stepping stone to the Science of Health - body, mind and soul. Involved Psychology spirit explained discussions on Shaktism and Scientology. I am the one and only Aro-health therapist. I am the solitary specialist in the Aro-healing Revised Complimentary Therapy (ARC) and the sole being qualified under Arochology - in the universe. There is no other like me. I created a Therapy that is able to promote health and stifle age, I shaped The Millennium Age Therapy, I produced Touching Lives The Sixth Sense - Extrasensory perception (Summary) classical classic Pavlovian conditioning Tellington Touch TTouch Cllicker Training response stimulus conditioned unconditioned food pain conditioning instrumental salivation ringing bell operant organism behavior punishment reward pairing Pavlovs Pavlov dog cat bird horse observations theorists Learning CS CR US UR salivate dogs experiments inconsistent associated different summary consequences simultaneous discovery case physiology technician psychic digestion presence secretion experiment integral appearance stronger ring replica neutral necessary repeated taste single trial fear forward train training click clicker earlier onset delay trace presented overlapped presentation elapse allowed period interval during simultaneous terminated time form follows procedure comes second first example light signal appear rather temporal zero extinction animals biological clock develops shortly suggests scheduled appear serve study timing ability procedure prediction predict key research theory phenomena methods frequency levels eliminate prior completely acquisition extent test trials measured necessary nature strength number frequency test without alone enough external inhbition reduction strong suggest each described spontaneous recovery reinstatement extinction present renewal chamber color shape context Kewpie doll effect Why Babies Cry A Few of the Reasons Why Babies Cry Hungry Gas on stomach needs to be burped Soiled diaper Diaper rash Thirsty Too hot Too cold Startled and frightened by a loud noise or strange sound ( dog barking, siren, door slam, etc.) When the baby wakes in a place other than where he went to sleep. Sick Over tired Over stimulated Afraid of the dark or unfamiliar person Has a medical problem In pain Allergic to something Not enough stimulating activity Wants human presence or compassionate contact - (separation anxiety) Wants to be rocked or held Formula or breast milk doesnt agree with the baby Feels lonely, insecure and isolated from activity - wants stimulation To release tension Handled too roughly Handled too much Hasnt learned to self calm Itchy clothing or irritated by clothing tags Not getting enough sleep Jiggled or bounced up and down too much and/or too vigorously Sun is in the babys eyes or the lights are too bright The pacifier tastes unpleasant and needs washing The pacifier fell out of the babys mouth Annoyed by hearing a TV program or stimulating complex music Clothing or diaper too tight Something is in the babys eye Growing pains Teething Insect bite The babys foot or arm is caught or he bumped into something Unpleasant smell Sibling pinched, hit or mishandled the baby A hair is wrapped tightly around a toe or finger, cutting off circulation. Feeding solid foods or sugar too soon The baby is frustrated Source: http://www.babygotosleep.com 2 RESEARCH: 'BONDING', Attachment INFLUENTIAL THEORY ON 'BONDING' AT BIRTH IS NOW QUESTIONED THE concept that there is a special period after birth during which mothers become ''bonded'' to their infants has prompted many hospitals to allow and encourage mothers and fathers to have immediate and prolonged contact with their newborn babies. The mother-infant bond in the first hours and days of life was said to improve mothering, increase the likelihood of breast feeding, enhance child development and prevent child abuse and neglect. Now, however, the very existence of this ''sensitive'' period when mothers are best able to become emotionally attached to their babies is challenged by a number of researchers. The critics say that if early contact affects how well a mother cares for her baby, it has prompted feelings of guilt and fear of failure in parents who did not share the first minutes and hours of life with their infants. Even so, critics who deny the existence of a special bonding period approve of the changes in hospital practice the theory has wrought. Allowing mothers more time with their babies after birth and permitting fathers to be present at delivery make childbirth happier and more natural for parents without jeopardizing the health of either mother or baby. Such changes have been encouraged by the natural childbirth movement, among others. As one father said, two years after his daughter was born by Caesarian delivery, ''We're all getting along just fine considering we didn't have the chance to get bonded.'' Other parents who may not have the opportunity for early contact include those whose babies are sick or premature, those who adopt children and those who would rather not be with the baby immediately after birth. ??The criticism comes at a time when the pediatricians who first popularized the notion of mother-infant bonding, Dr. Marshall H. Klaus and Dr. John H. Kennell, are themselves modifying their views. In their first book, ''Maternal-Infant Bonding,'' published in 1976, they wrote: ''There is a sensitive period in the first minutes and hours of life during which it is necessary that the mother and father have close contact with their neonate for later development to be optimal.'' In an interview Dr. Klaus, chairman of pediatrics at Michigan State University at the time, said ''I wish we'd never written the statement.'' ''We don't agree with that statement now,'' Dr. Klaus continued. ''Rather, I'd say there is a suggestion that for some mothers additional contact in the first hours and days of life may be helpful and in some it may have a profound effect on how they care for the baby, especially poor mothers with few social supports.'' ??However, Dr. Klaus added, ''Right now, there are no studies that confirm or deny the presence of a sensitive period or that measure how much contact is needed between mother and baby during the first hours or days of life to have an effect.'' ??A new edition of the Klaus-Kennell book was published retitled ''Parent-Infant Bonding''. In it, the authors acknowledge that ''In spite of a lack of early contact experienced by parents in hospital births in the past 20 to 30 years, almost all these parents became bonded to their babies. The human is highly adaptable, and there are many fail-safe routes to attachment. Sadly, some parents who missed the bonding experience have felt that all was lost for their future relationship. This was (and is) completely incorrect.'' In the interview Dr. Klaus said, the word bonding has become confused with epoxy glue. This is too literal an interpretation. But just because the work has been misinterpreted doesn't mean you throw it out.'' The big critic of the Klaus-Kennell hypothesis and the data that are said to support it is Dr. Michael E. Lamb, a developmental psychologist at the University of Utah Medical Center. According to Dr. Lamb, of the more than 20 studies of early contact, most ''actually show few if any differences between mothers who were allowed early contact and those who were denied it.'' His conclusion was based on these observations: Although several researchers have reported that early contact enhances a mother's behavior toward her child, other studies have not found the same effects. Furthermore, what effects were found were largely short-lived, disappearing by the time the baby was a few months old. The various studies examined a large number of measures of maternal behavior, but only a few were significantly different between the two groups of mothers, suggesting that such differences may have been due to chance, not actual cause and effect. Many of the effects that were found have little or no relevance to how strongly a mother is attached to her baby. For example, one study showed that mothers with early contact were more likely to be sitting up or leaning on one elbow than mothers without such contact. Others related early contact to longer breast feeding. But according to Dr. M.A. Curry, associate professor of family nursing at Oregon Health Science University, how long a mother continues to nurse is influenced by many factors, not just her attachment to her baby. In some studies, the effects found could have been due to differences in how the hospital staff acted toward early-contact mothers in contrast to those given routine maternity care. In some studies, pre-existing differences between the groups of mothers before childbirth may have accounted for later differences in maternal behavior. n a study carefully designed to overcome such flaws, Marilyn J. Svejda and her co-workers in Denver found no effect of early contact on 28 discrete measures of maternal behavior. Dr. Svejda, a nurse and developmental psychologist who was at the University of Michigan School of Medicine at the time of the study, concluded that ''the effects of early contact, if any, are extremely subtle and short-lived and operate only under selective conditions.'' Dr. Klaus maintains that Dr. Lamb misquoted or misunderstood some supporting studies and that he didn't read the latest version of the Klaus-Kennell book, where claims for the value of early contact are more moderate than in the first edition. Dr. Barbara M. Korsch of Children's Hospital of Los Angeles, on the other hand, largely agrees with Dr. Lamb's comments. In an editorial in the Journal of Pediatrics, she wrote that many of the studies of early contact are ''methodologically flawed, which is not surprising, because childbirth, mothering practices, mother-child relationships and child development are complex human phenomena for which we have few appropriate measures.'' Dr. Korsch said that ''believers and disciples (of the Klaus-Kennell work) have often been so dogmatic and evangelical that they did a disservice to their cause.'' ''The process of bonding to a child is long-term and complex,'' Dr. Lamb said in an interview. ''In the context of all other things, early contact is not very important.'' He urged that recent changes in obstetrical practices be continued but added that ''medical science should be able to do such things because they are humane, regardless of whether they have long term benefits. It's good to allow early contact when parents want it and to let fathers into the delivery room. Birthing is a social and emotional activity, not a disease.'' In one of the many critical comments included in the Klaus-Kennell book, Dr. Curry emphasized that the mother should decide how much contact she has with her newborn and should not be made to feel guilty if she would rather not be with her baby. ''Events that foster attachment for some families can have a negative effect on other families. An exhausted mother, for example, may prefer to rest alone and may resent having her infant during this time.'' ??Dr. Klaus urges continued study of early contact and its effects on bonding and maternal and child behavior. He said, for example, that if the suggestive finding that early contact reduces the risk of child abuse were borne out by larger studies, it could have a profound social impact. Source: THEORY ON 'BONDING' AT BIRTH By JANE E. BRODY http://www.nytimes.com TABLE 20: BIOLOGY, INFANCY AND MOTHERING SOURCE: Wenda Trevathan, Professor of Anthropology Table 20: Biology, Infancy and Mothering 'Mothering could be influenced by biology' (instincts). Wenda Trevathan, Professor of Anthropology Source: Wenda Trevathan, Regents Professor of Anthropology, New Mexico State University, USA Legacies related to birth - need for emotional (and physical) support during labor and delivery .- desire for contact and interaction with the newborn infant immediately after birth These needs (and associated behaviors) led to higher survival and better health of mothers and infants in the past Women and infants tend to remain together for much of the first few hours after birth Fathers and other family members are often present at or soon after birth Rooming in is the norm in most hospitals and birth centers Breastfeeding is initiated within a couple of hours after birth the first hour after birth is a special or sensitive time. the first hour after birth is important for mother-infant bonding Aspects that impact childbirth bipedalism = narrow pelvis expanded brain = large neonatal head delayed development of brain 75 percent of brain growth takes place after birth Helpless babies place different demands on mothers Bipedalism also meant a different shape to the birth canal Most mammals give birth alone Worldwide there is a desire for others to be present at birth for humans Mother-Infant Bonding "There is a sensitive period in the first minutes and hours of life during which it is necessary that the mother and father have close contact with their neonate for later development to be optimal. Klaus and Kennell, 1976; (emphasis added). Research Many studies have concluded that skin-to-skin contact soon after birth and early suckling positively influence mother-infant interaction and breastfeeding success maternal behavior 1)following a pattern of tactile contact upon first interaction with the infant 2)holding the infant to the left of the body 3)elevating the pitch of the voice when talking to the infant 4)looking at the infant en face 5)initiating nursing within an hour of birth maternal behavior in MAMMALS - licking the infants - consuming the placenta - vocalizing - allowing access to nipples behavior for human mothers Preference for holding the baby on the left side of the body, regardless of maternal handedness elevating the pitch of the voice when talking to or toward their infants. eye contact and preference for looking at the infant in the en face position left lateral preference data from El Paso Texas study - 71 percent of the mothers held their infants on the left side when they first received them - 67 percent held their infants on the left side for most of the first hour after birth touch and skin-to-skin contact at birth - to stroke and massage stimulates breathing - it provides warmth (the maternal nest) - it soothes the infant, it reduces energy expenditure - it rubs in the vernix, which may prevent dehydration and infection (some of the vernix is rubbed in by birth contractions) Touch and massage may replace licking - it cleans the infant so that breathing is not inhibited; it removes odors - it dries and provides warmth - it stimulates breathing, digestion and elimination - it orients the infant toward the nipples - it promotes bonding vernix caseosa - it protects the skin from dehydration in the amniotic fluid and upon exposure to the air - it has antimicrobial and antioxidant properties both in utero and after birth - it protects the skin from bacteria and other agents in the extra uterine environment - it promotes colonization of useful microbes left lateral holding, eye contact, and high-pitched voice - heartbeat, eyes and voice soothe the infant and conserve energy - left holding facilitates eye contact (infants prefers to look to the right) mothers engage in behaviors that increase infant survival at birth and infant can save mother's life! Infant contacts breast oxytocin released uterus contracts, inhibits bleeding The first hour after birth is probably the single most vulnerable hour in most peoples lives - Events and behaviors in that hour may have made the difference between life and death for mothers and infants in the past - It was a critical period (for survival) in the past, but is it still important today? How can it not be important? Consider all of the things that happen before, during and immediately after birth what mothers bring to birth what happens to them physically what happens to them emotionally the presence of the newborn infant Maternal sensitive period? .the events of pregnancy and the early postpartum period may facilitate the process of attachment to offspring and make the transition from nonmother to mother somewhat easier. Allison Fleming, 1990 Maternal sensitive period? ... interaction with infants during the early postpartum period of heightened receptivity to infants, [may] increase the likelihood that mothers will continue to respond in a nurturing fashion at a later point when physiological or physical influences associated with the newborn period are no longer present. Allison Fleming, 1990 Maternal sensitive period? First hour after birth is importantfor mother-infant bonding but not necessary. What is the legacy of women at birth? A strongly felt need for emotional support at the time of birth and contact with infant immediately after birth. Source: Wenda Trevathan, Regents Professor of Anthropology, New Mexico State University, USA The Attachment Bond Attachment and Adult Relationships HOW THE ATTACHMENT BOND SHAPES ADULT RELATIONSHIPS Have you ever been in love? We all have, at least once. The attachment bond is the term for your first interactive love relationship the one you had with your primary caregiver as an infant, usually your mother. This mother-child attachment bond shapes an infant's brain, profoundly influencing your self-esteem, your expectations of others, and your ability to attract and maintain successful adult relationships. By learning about attachment, you can build healthier, attuned relationships and communicate effectively. Attachment, bonding and relationships You were born preprogramed to bond with one very significant person your primary caregiver, probably your mother. Like all infants, you were a bundle of emotions intensely experiencing fear, anger, sadness, and joy. The emotional attachment that grew between you and your caregiver was the first interactive relationship of your life, and it depended upon nonverbal communication. The bonding you experienced determined how you would relate to other people throughout your life, because it established the foundation for all verbal and nonverbal communication in your future relationships. Individuals, who experience confused, frightened, or broken emotional communications during their infancy often grow into adults who have difficulty understanding their own emotions and the feelings of others. This limits their ability to build or maintain successful relationships. Attachment the relationship between infants and their primary caregivers is responsible for: shaping the success or failure of future intimate relationships the ability to maintain emotional balance the ability to enjoy being ourselves and to find satisfaction in being with others the ability to rebound from disappointment, discouragement, and misfortune Scientific study of the brain and the role attachment plays in shaping it has given us a new basis for understanding why vast numbers of people have difficulty communicating with the most important individuals in their work and love lives. Once, we could only use guesswork to determine why important relationships never evolved, developed chronic problems, or fell apart. Now, thanks to new insights into brain development, we can understand what it takes to help build and nurture productive and meaningful relationships at home and at work. What is the attachment bond? The mother child bond is the primary force in infant development, according to the attachment bond theory pioneered by English psychiatrist John Bowlby and American psychologist Mary Ainsworth. The theory gained strength through worldwide scientific studies and the use of brain imaging technology. The attachment bond theory states that the relationship between infants and primary caretakers is responsible for: shaping of future relationships strengthening or damaging our abilities to focus, be conscious of our feelings, and calm ourselves the ability to bounce back from misfortune Research reveals the infant/adult interactions that result in a successful, secure attachment, are those where both mother and infant can sense the other s feelings and emotions. In other words, an infant feels safe and understood when the mother responds to their cries and accurately interprets their changing needs. Unsuccessful or insecure attachment occurs when there is a failure in this communication of feelings. Researchers found that successful adult relationships depend on the ability to: manage stress stay tuned in with emotions use communicative body language be playful in a mutually engaging manner be readily forgiving, relinquishing grudges The same research also found that an insecure attachment may be caused by abuse, but it is also likely to be caused by isolation or loneliness. These discoveries offer a new glimpse into successful love relationships, providing the keys to identifying and repairing a love relationship. The attachment bond shapes an infant s brain For better or for worse, the infant brain is influenced by the attachment bond a baby s first love relationship. When the primary caretaker can manage personal stress, calm the infant, communicate through emotion, share joy, and forgive easily, the young child s nervous system becomes securely attached. The strong foundation of a secure attachment bond enables the child to be self-confident, trusting, hopeful, and comfortable in the face of conflict. As an adult, he will be creative, flexible, hopeful, and optimistic. Our secure attachment bond shapes our abilities to: feel safe develop meaningful connections with others explore our world deal with stress balance emotions experience comfort and security make sense of our lives create positive memories and expectations of relationships Attachment bonds are as unique as we are. Primary caretakers dont have to be perfect. They do not have to always be in tune with their infants emotions, but it helps if they are emotionally available the majority of the time. The Attachment Theory Attachment Infants will form attachments to any sensitive and responsive caregiver although it is usually the mother who is the primary attachment figure. Within attachment theory, attachment means an affectional bond or tie between an individual and an attachment figure (usually a caregiver). In child-to-adult relationships, the child's tie is called the "attachment" and the caregiver's equivalent is referred to as the "care-giving bond". Infants form attachments to any consistent caregiver who is sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them. The quality of the social engagement is more influential than the amount of time spent. Although the biological mother is usually the principal attachment figure, the role can be taken by anyone who consistently behaves in a "mothering" or care giving way over a period of time. In attachment theory, this means a set of behaviors that involves engaging in lively social interaction with the infant and responding readily to signals and approaches. Fathers or any other individuals are equally likely to become principal attachment figures if they provide most of the child care and related social interaction. Some infants direct attachment behavior (proximity seeking) towards more than one attachment figure almost as soon as they start to show discrimination between caregivers; most come to do so during their second year. These figures are arranged hierarchically, with the principal attachment figure at the top. The set-goal of the attachment behavioral system is to maintain a bond with an accessible and available attachment figure. "Alarm" is the term used for activation of the attachment behavioral system caused by fear of danger. "Anxiety" is the anticipation or fear of being cut off from the attachment figure. If the figure is unavailable or unresponsive, separation distress occurs. In infants, physical separation can cause anxiety and anger, followed by sadness and despair. By age 3 or 4, physical separation is no longer such a threat to the child's bond with the attachment figure. Behaviors A securely attached baby is free to concentrate on his environment. The attachment behavioral system serves to maintain or achieve closer proximity to the attachment figure. Pre-attachment behaviors occur in the first six months of life. During the first phase (the first 8 weeks), infants smile, babble and cry to attract the attention of potential caregivers. Although infants of this age learn to discriminate between caregivers, these behaviors are directed at anyone in the vicinity. During the second phase (2 to 6 months), the infant increasingly discriminates between familiar and unfamiliar adults, becoming more responsive towards the caregiver; following and clinging are added to the range of behaviors. Clear-cut attachment develops in the third phase, between the ages of 6 months and 2 years. The infant's behavior towards the caregiver becomes organized on a goal-directed basis to achieve the conditions that make him feel secure. By the end of the first year, the infant is able to display a range of attachment behaviors designed to maintain proximity. These manifest as protesting the caregiver's departure, greeting the caregiver's return, clinging when frightened and following when able. With the development of locomotion, the infant begins to use the caregiver or caregivers as a safe base from which to explore. Infant exploration is greater when the caregiver is present because the infant's attachment system is relaxed and it is free to explore. If the caregiver is inaccessible or unresponsive, attachment behavior is more strongly exhibited. Anxiety, fear, illness and fatigue will cause a child to increase attachment behaviors. After the second year, as the child begins to see the caregiver as an independent person, a more complex and goal-corrected partnership is formed. Children begin to notice others' goals and feelings and plan their actions accordingly. For example, whereas babies cry because of pain, two-year-olds cry to summon their caregiver, and if that does not work, cry louder, shout or follow. Tenets Bowlby's original sensitivity period of between 6 months and 2 to 3 years has been modified to a less "all or nothing" approach. There is a sensitive period, during which it is highly desirable that selective attachments develop, but the time frame is broader and the effect less fixed and irreversible than first proposed. With further research, authors discussing attachment theory have come to appreciate that social development is affected by later as well as earlier relationships. Early steps in attachment take place most easily if the infant has one caregiver, or the occasional care of a small number of other people. According to Bowlby, almost from the first many children have more than one figure towards whom they direct attachment behavior. These figures are not treated alike; there is a strong bias for a child to direct attachment behavior mainly towards one particular person. Bowlby used the term "monotropy" to describe this bias. Researchers and theorists have abandoned this concept insofar as it may be taken to mean that the relationship with the special figure differs qualitatively from that of other figures. Rather, current thinking postulates definite hierarchies of relationships. Early experiences with caregivers gradually give rise to a system of thoughts, memories, beliefs, expectations, emotions, and behaviors about the self and others. This system, called the "internal working model of social relationships", continues to develop with time and experience. Internal models regulate, interpret and predict attachment-related behavior in the self and the attachment figure. As they develop in line with environmental and developmental changes, they incorporate the capacity to reflect and communicate about past and future attachment relationships. They enable the child to handle new types of social interactions; knowing, for example, that an infant should be treated differently from an older child, or that interactions with teachers and parents share characteristics. This internal working model continues to develop through adulthood, helping to cope with friendships, marriage and parenthood, all of which involve different behaviors and feelings. The development of attachment is a transactional process. Specific attachment behaviors begin with predictable, apparently innate, behaviors in infancy. They change with age in ways that are determined partly by experiences and partly by situational factors. As attachment behaviors change with age, they do so in ways shaped by relationships. A child's behavior when reunited with a caregiver is determined not only by how the caregiver has treated the child before, but on the history of effects the child has had on the caregiver. Attachment patterns Much of attachment theory was informed by Mary Ainsworth's methodology and studies, particularly those undertaken in Scotland and Uganda. Ainsworth's work expanded the theory's concepts and enabled testing of its tenets. Using Bowlby's early formulation, she conducted observational research on infant-parent pairs (or dyads) during the child's first year, combining extensive home visits with the study of behaviours in particular situations. This early research was published in 1967 in a book titled Infancy in Uganda. Ainsworth identified 3 attachment styles, or patterns, that a child may have with attachment figures: secure, anxious-avoidant (insecure) and anxious-ambivalent or resistant (insecure). She devised a procedure known as the Strange Situation Protocol as the laboratory portion of her larger study, to assess separation and reunion behavior. This is a standardized research tool used to assess attachment patterns in infants and toddlers. By creating stresses designed to activate attachment behavior, the procedure reveals how young children use their caregiver as a source of security. Carer and child are placed in an unfamiliar playroom while a researcher records specific behaviors, observing through a one-way mirror. In 8 different episodes, the child experiences separation from/reunion with the carer and the presence of an unfamiliar stranger. The formal origin of the theory began with the publication of the paper in 1958, Bowlby's "The Nature of the Child's Tie to his Mother". Bowlby followed up his first paper with two more; "Separation Anxiety" (1960a), and "Grief and Mourning in Infancy and Early Cognitive development Bowlby's reliance on Piaget's theory of cognitive development gave rise to questions about object permanence (the ability to remember an object that is temporarily absent) in early attachment behaviors. An infant's ability to discriminate strangers and react to the mother's absence seemed to occur months earlier than Piaget suggested would be cognitively possible. More recently, it has been noted that the understanding of mental representation has advanced so much since Bowlby's day that present views can be more specific than those of Bowlby's time. Developments As the formulation of attachment theory progressed; there was criticism of the support for the theory. Possible alternative explanations for results of the research were proposed. Some of Bowlby's interpretations of James Robertson's data were rejected by the researcher when he reported data from 13 young children cared for in ideal rather than institutional circumstances on separation from their mothers. In the second volume of the trilogy, Separation, Bowlby acknowledged Robertson's study had caused him to modify his views on the traumatic consequences of separation in which insufficient weight had been given to the influence of skilled care from a familiar substitute. In 1984 Skuse based criticism on the work of Anna Freud with children from Theresienstadt who had apparently developed relatively normally despite serious deprivation in their early years. He concluded there was an excellent prognosis for children with this background, unless there were biological or genetic risk factors. Bowlby's arguments that young babies were social creatures and actors in creating relationships with parents took time to be accepted. So did Ainsworth's emphasis on the importance and primacy of maternal attunement for psychological development (a point also argued by Donald Winnicott). In the 1970s Daniel Stern undertook research on the concept of attunement between young infants and caregivers, using micro-analysis of video evidence. This added to the understanding of the complexity of infant/caregiver interactions as an integral part of a baby's emotional and social development. Recent developments Whereas Bowlby was inspired by Piaget's insights into children's thinking, current attachment scholars use insights from literature on knowledge, theory of mind, autobiographical memory and social representation. Psychoanalyst/psychologists Peter Fonagy and Mary Target attempted to bring attachment theory and psychoanalysis into a closer relationship through cognitive science as mentalization. Mentalization, or theory of mind, is the capacity of human beings to guess with accuracy what thoughts, emotions and intentions lie behind behaviors as subtle as facial expression. This connection between theory of mind and the internal working model may open new areas of study, leading to alterations in attachment theory. Attachment-based therapy (children) In 1988, Bowlby published a series of lectures indicating how attachment theory and research could be used in understanding and treating child and family disorders. His focus for bringing about change was the parents' internal working models, parenting behaviors and the parents' relationship with the therapeutic intervener. Ongoing research has led to a number of individual treatments and prevention and intervention programs. They range from individual therapy to public health programs to interventions designed for foster carers. For infants and younger children, the focus is on increasing the responsiveness and sensitivity of the caregiver, or if that is not possible, placing the child with a different caregiver. An assessment of the attachment status or care giving responses of the caregiver is included, as attachment is a two-way process involving attachment behavior and caregiver response. Some programs are aimed at foster carers because the attachment behaviors of infants or children with attachment difficulties often do not elicit appropriate caregiver responses. Modern prevention and intervention programs are mostly in the process of being evaluated. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theory The Attachment Theory For infants and toddlers, the "set-goal" of the attachment behavioral system is to maintain or achieve proximity to attachment figures, usually the parents. Attachment theory describes the dynamics of long term relationships between humans. Its important that an infant develops a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for social and emotional development to occur normally. Attachment theory is an interdisciplinary study that encompasses the fields of psychological, evolutionary and ethological theory. Immediately after World War II, homeless and orphaned children presented many difficulties, and psychiatrist and psychoanalyst John Bowlby was asked by the UN to write a pamphlet on the matter. Later he went on to formulate the attachment theory. Infants become attached to individuals who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about 6 months to 2 years of age. When an infant begins to crawl and walk they begin to use attachment figures (familiar people) as a secure base to explore from and return to. Caregivers' responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment; these, in turn, lead to internal working models which will guide the individual's emotions, thoughts, perceptions and expectations in later relationships. Separation anxiety or grief following the loss of an attachment figure is considered to be a normal and adaptive response for an attached infant. These behaviors may have evolved because they increase the probability of survival of the child. Infant behavior associated with attachment is primarily the seeking of proximity to an attachment figure. To formulate a comprehensive theory of the nature of early attachments, Bowlby explored a range of fields, including evolutionary biology, object relations theory (a branch of psychoanalysis), control systems theory, and the fields of ethology and cognitive psychology. After preliminary papers from 1958 onwards, Bowlby published a complete study in 3 volumes Attachment and Loss (196982). Research by developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth in the 1960s and 70s reinforced the basic concepts, introduced the concept of the "secure base" and developed a theory of a number of attachment patterns in infants: secure attachment, avoidant attachment and anxious attachment. A fourth pattern, disorganized attachment, was identified later. In the 1980s, the theory was extended to attachment in adults. Other interactions may be construed as including components of attachment behavior; these include peer relationships at all ages, romantic and sexual attraction and responses to the care needs of infants or the sick and elderly. In the early days of the theory, academic psychologists and the psychoanalytic community criticized Bowlby for his departure from psychoanalytical tenets. Attachment theory has since become "the dominant approach to understanding early social development, and has given rise to research into the formation of children's close relationships". Later criticisms of attachment theory relate to temperament, the complexity of social relationships, and the limitations of discrete patterns for classifications. This theory has also been modified as a result of research, but the concepts are generally accepted. Attachment theory has formed the basis of new therapies, informed existing ones, and its concepts have been used in the formulation of social and childcare policies to support the early attachment relationships of children. Bowlby's Attachment Theory John Bowlby (1907 - 1990) was a psychoanalyst (like Freud) and believed that mental health and behavioral problems could be attributed to early childhood. Bowlby s theory of attachment suggests that children come into the world biologically pre-programed to form attachments with others, because this will help them to survive. Bowlby was influenced by ethological theory in general, but especially by Lorenzs (1935) study of imprinting. Lorenz showed that attachment was innate (in young ducklings) and therefore has a survival value. Bowlby believed that attachment behaviors are instinctive and will be activated by any conditions that seem to threaten the achievement of proximity, such as separation, insecurity and fear. Bowlby (1969, 1988) also postulated that the fear of strangers represents an important survival mechanism, built in by nature. Babies are born with the tendency to display certain innate behaviors (called social releasers) which help ensure proximity and contact with the mother or mother figure (e.g. smiling, crying, crawling, etc.) these are species-specific behaviors. During the evolution of the human species, it would have been the babies who stayed close to their mothers who would have survived to have children of their own and Bowlby hypothesized that both infants and mothers have evolved a biological need to stay in contact with each other. These attachment behaviors initially function like fixed action patterns and all share the same function. The infant produces innate social releaser behaviors such as smiling and crying that stimulate caregiving from adults. The determinant of attachment is not food but care and responsiveness. Bowlby suggested that a child would initially form only one attachment and that the attachment figure acted as a secure base for exploring the world. The attachment relationship acts as a prototype for all future social relationships so disrupting it can have severe consequences. Main Points of Bowlbys Attachment Theory 1. A child has an innate (i.e. inborn) need to attach to one main attachment figure (i.e. monotropy). Although Bowlby did not rule out the possibility of other attachment figures for a child, he did believe that there should be a primary bond which was much more important than any other (usually the mother). Bowlby believes that this attachment is different in kind (qualitatively different) from any subsequent attachments. Bowlby argues that the relationship with the mother is somehow different altogether from other relationships. Essentially, Bowlby suggested that the nature of monotropy (attachment conceptualized as being a vital and close bond with one attachment figure) meant that a failure to initiate, or a breakdown of, the maternal attachment would lead to serious negative consequences, possibly including affectionless psychopathy. Bowlbys theory of monotropy led to the formulation of his maternal deprivation hypothesis. The child behaves in ways that elicits contact or proximity to the caregiver. When a child experiences heightened arousal, he signals his caregiver. Smiling, crying and locomotion are examples of these signaling behaviors. Instinctively, caregivers respond to their childrens behavior creating a pattern of interaction. 2. A child should receive the continuous care of this single most important attachment figure for approximately the first 2 years of life. Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after 2 and a half to 3 years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e. there is a critical period. If the attachment figure is broken or disrupted during the critical 2 year period the child will suffer irreversible long-term consequences of this maternal deprivation. This risk continues until the age of 5. Bowlby used the term maternal deprivation to refer to the separation or loss of the mother as well as failure to develop an attachment. The underlying assumption of Bowlbys Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis is that continual disruption of the attachment between infant and primary caregiver (i.e. mother) could result in long term cognitive, emotional and social difficulties for that infant. If this is true, should the primary caregiver leave the child in day care whilst he/she continues to work? 3. The long term consequences of maternal deprivation might include the following: reduced intelligence depression increased aggression delinquency affectionless psychopathy Affectionless psychopathy is an inability to show affection or concern for others. These individuals act on impulse with little regard to the consequences of their actions. For example showing no guilt for antisocial behavior. 4. The childs attachment relationship with his primary caregiver leads to the development of an internal working model. This internal working model is a cognitive framework comprising mental representations for understanding self, the world and others. A persons interaction with others is guided by memories and expectations from his internal model which influence and help evaluate his contact with others (Bretherton, & Munholland, 1999). Around the age of 3 these seem to become part of a childs personality and thus affect his understanding of the world and future interactions with others (Schore, 2000). According to Bowlby (1969) the primary caregiver acts as a prototype for future relationships via the internal working model. There are 3 main features of the internal working model: a model of others as being trustworthy a model of the self as valuable a model of the self as effective when interacting with others. It is this mental representation that guides future social and emotional behavior as the childs internal working model guides the responsiveness to others in general. Source: Bowlby's Attachment Theory by Saul McLeod published 2007 http://www.simplypsychology.org The Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis Long term Effects of Separation - The Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis (1953) Maternal deprivation hypothesis was that breaking the maternal bond with the child during the early years of his life will have serious and irreversible effects on its intellectual, social, and emotional development. Bowlbys Forty-Four Thieves Study. Bowlby (1944) Study of a group of children referred to a child guidance clinic because they were juvenile thieves. He compared them to a control group of children who had been referred to the clinic because of emotional problems but who had not committed any crimes. He found that 32 percent of the juvenile thieves were affectionless psychopaths (lacking guilt and remorse), whereas none of the children in the control group were affectionless psychopaths. Of the juvenile thieves who were affectionless psychopaths, 86 percent had experienced early separation. Spitz (1945) Studied children in poor orphanages and other institutions in South America. The children in these orphanages received little attention from the staff and many suffered from anaclitic depression (helplessness and loss of appetite). The anaclitic depression was attributed to their lack of emotional care and separation from their mothers. Spitz and Wolf (1946) Studied 100 children who became seriously depressed after staying in hospital. The children recovered well if the separation from their mothers lasted less than 3 months. Source: The Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis http://www.scribd.com 44 Thieves Study (Bowlby, 1944) John Bowlby believed that the relationship between the infant and his mother during the first 5 years of life was crucial to socialization. He believed that disruption of this primary relationship could lead to a higher incidence of emotional difficulties, juvenile delinquency and antisocial behavior. To support his hypothesis, he studied 44 adolescent juvenile delinquents in a child guidance clinic. Aim: To investigate the effects of maternal deprivation on people in order to see whether delinquents have suffered deprivation. According to the Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis, breaking the maternal bond with the child during the early stages of his life is likely to have serious effects on his emotional, intellectual and social development. Procedure: Bowlby interviewed 44 adolescents who were referred to a child protection program in London because of stealing- i.e. they were thieves. Bowlby selected another group of 44 children to act as controls. N.B. controls: individuals referred to the clinic because of emotional problems but have not committed any crimes. He interviewed the parents from both groups to state whether their children experienced separation during the critical period and for how long. Findings: More than half of the juvenile thieves had been separated from their mothers for longer than 6 months during their first 5 years. In the control group 2 had such a separation. He also found that 32 percent of the young thieves showed 'affectionless psychopathy' (they were not able to care about or feel affection for others). None of the control group was affectionless psychopaths. In a later paper, he reported that 60 children who had spent time apart from their mothers in a tuberculosis sanatorium before the age of 4 showed lower achievement in school. Conclusion: Affectionless psychopaths show little concern for others and are unable to form relationships. Bowlby concluded that the reason for the anti-social behavior and emotional problems in the first group was due to maternal deprivation. Evaluation: The supporting evidence that Bowlby (1944) provided was in the form of clinical interviews and retrospective data on those who had and had not been separated from their primary caregiver. This meant that Bowlby was asking the participants to look back and recall separations. These memories may not be accurate. Bowlby designed and conducted the experiment himself. This may have lead to experimenter bias. Particularly as he was responsible for making the diagnosis of affectionless psychopathy. Evaluation of Bowlbys Attachment Theory Bowlby s (1946, 1956) ideas had an influence on the way researchers thought about attachment and much of the discussion of his theory focused on his belief in monotropy. Although Bowlby may not dispute that young children from multiple attachments, he still contends that the attachment to the mother is unique in that it is the first to appear and remains the strongest of all. However, on both of these counts, the evidence seems to suggest otherwise. Schaffer and Emerson (1964) noted that specific attachments started at about 8 months and shortly thereafter. The infants became attached to other people. By 18 months few (13 percent) were attached to only one person; some had 5 or more attachments. Rutter (1978) points that several indicators of attachment (such as protest or distress when the attached person leaves) show a variety of attachment figures fathers, siblings, peers and even inanimate objects. Critics such as Rutter have accused Bowlby of not distinguishing between deprivation and privation the complete lack of an attachment bond, rather than its loss. Rutter stresses that the quality of the attachment bond is the most important factor, rather than deprivation in the critical period. Bowlby used the term maternal deprivation to refer to the separation or loss of the mother as well as failure to develop an attachment. Are the effects of maternal deprivation as problematic as Bowlby suggested? Michael Rutter (1972) wrote a book called Maternal Deprivation Re-assessed. In the book, he suggested that Bowlby may have oversimplified the concept of maternal deprivation. Bowlby used the term 'maternal deprivation' to refer to separation from an attached figure, loss of an attached figure and failure to develop an attachment to any figure. This each has different effects, argued Rutter. In particular Rutter distinguished between privation and deprivation. Michael Rutter (1981) argued that if a child fails to develop an attachment this is privation, whereas deprivation refers to the loss of or damage to an attachment. From his survey of research on privation, Rutter proposed that it is likely to initially lead to dependent behavior, attention-seeking, clinging and indiscriminate friendliness. As the child matures, it is also likely to lead to an inability to form lasting relationships, an inability to keep rules or feel guilt. He found evidence of anti-social behavior, affectionless psychopathy, and disorders of language, intellectual development and physical growth. Rutter argues that these problems are not solely due to the lack of attachment to a mother figure, as Bowlby claimed, but to factors such as the lack of intellectual stimulation and social experiences which attachments normally provide. In addition, with the right care, such problems can be overcome later in the child's development. Many of the 44 thieves in Bowlbys study had been moved around a lot during childhood, and had probably never formed an attachment. This suggested that they were suffering from privation, rather than deprivation, which Rutter suggested was more detrimental to the children. This led to an important study carried out by Hodges and Tizard (1989) on the long term effects of privation. Another criticism of the 44 Thieves Study in that it concluded that affectionless psychopathy was caused by maternal deprivation. This is correlational data and as such only shows a relationship between these two variables. Indeed, other external variables, such as diet, parental income, education etc. may have affected the behavior of the 44 thieves, and not, as concluded, the disruption of the attachment bond. Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation however supported Harlow's research with monkeys. He showed that monkeys reared in isolation from their mother suffered emotional and social problems in older age. The monkey's never formed an attachment (privation) and as such grew up to be aggressive and had problems interacting with other monkeys. Konrad Lorenz (1935) supports Bowlby's maternal deprivation hypothesis as the attachment process of imprinting is an innate process. There are implications arising from Bowlbys work. Bowlby believed the mother to be the most central caregiver and that this care should be given on a continuous basis. An obvious implication is that mothers should not go out to work. There have been many attacks on this claim: Mothers are the exclusive carers in only a small percentage of human societies; often there are a number of people involved in the care of children, such as relations and friends (Weisner & Gallimore, 1977). Van Ijzendoorn & Tavecchio (1987) argue that a stable network of adults can provide adequate care and that this care may even have advantages over a system where a mother has to meet all a childs needs. There is evidence that children develop better with a mother who is happy in her work, than a mother who is frustrated by staying at home (Schaffer, 1990). 3 OVERVIEW: Reflexes ??Reflexes are the building blocks of movement. For a typically-progressing baby, reflexes are triggered naturally while responding to his environment. A reflex action, also known as a reflex, is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus. Some people use the term "reflex" to mean a behavior which is mediated via the reflex arc; this does not apply to casual uses of the term 'reflex'. Adaptive Value of Reflexes Reflexes vary in utility. Some have a survival value. An example is the rooting reflex, which helps a breastfed infant find the mother's nipple. Babies display it only when hungry and touched by another person, not when they touch themselves. There are a few reflexes that probably helped babies survive during human evolutionary past like the Moro reflex. Other reflexes such as sucking and grabbing help establish gratifying interaction between parents and infants. They can encourage a parent to respond lovingly and feed more competently. They can also help parents comfort their infant because they allow the baby to control distress and the amount of stimulation they receive. The Importance of Reflexes in Developmental Delays Primitive reﬂexes are considered "aberrant" if they remain active beyond age 6 - 12 months. They should be inhibited by the brain, allowing more sophisticated neural structures to develop. The continued presence of any of twelve primitive and postural reﬂexes is a sign of central nervous system (CNS) immaturity, which can have a profound impact upon a child's development, learning and behavior. What do reflexes have to do with learning and behavior? Motor control lays the foundation for learning and self control. We acquire new skills by moving our bodies intentionally. To track visually left to right, to shape consonants in the mouth, and to form letters, we need to have intentional control of the muscles involved. When those muscles obey an unconscious reﬂex instead of responding to our intention, then the activity is confusing and cannot become an automatic learned skill. Academic learning depends upon the atomization of basic skills at a physical level. If a child fails to develop this automatic motor control, a teacher might observe such symptoms as reversals in reading and writing, disarticulations, poor impulse control, difficulty reading body language, or unsatisfactory peer relationships, despite good intelligence. Change is unlikely unless the underlying neuro-developmental problem is addressed. Neonatal Reflexes Definition Neonatal reflexes or primitive reflexes are the inborn behavioral patterns that develop during uterine life. They should be fully present at birth and are gradually inhibited by higher centers in the brain during the first 3 to 12 months of postnatal life. These reflexes are present immediately after birth and include swallowing, blinking, sucking, hiccupping, urinating and defecating. These typical reflexes are not learned. They are involuntary and essential for a newborn's survival. Description A normal birth is considered full term if the delivery occurs during the thirty-seventh to fortieth week after conception. Developmentally, the baby is considered a neonate for the first 28 days of life. At birth, the neonate must immediately make 5 major adjustments: Transition from an aquatic environment to a world of air. The first breath begins even before the umbilical cord is cut. Eat and digest his own food since the circulatory relationship between mother and baby stops with the severance of the umbilical cord. Excrete his own wastes. Maintain his own body temperature. Adjust to intermittent feeding since food is now only available at certain intervals. Under normal developmental conditions, these neonatal reflexes represent important reactions of the nervous system and are only observable within a specific period of time over the first few months of life. Primitive reflexes Primitive reflexes are reflex actions originating in the central nervous system that are exhibited by normal infants but not neurologically intact adults, in response to particular stimuli. These reflexes disappear or are inhibited by the frontal lobes as a child moves through normal child development. These primitive reflexes are also called infantile, infant or newborn reflexes. Older children and adults with atypical neurology (for instance, people with cerebral palsy) may retain these reflexes and primitive reflexes may re-appear in adults because of certain neurological conditions, including but not limited to dementia, traumatic lesions and strokes. An individual with cerebral palsy and typical intelligence can learn to suppress these reflexes, but the reflex might resurface under certain conditions such as during an extreme startle reaction. Reflexes may also be limited to those areas affected by the atypical neurology, such as individuals whose cerebral palsy affects only their legs retaining the Babinski reflex but having normal speech; in individuals with hemiplegia, the reflex might be seen in the foot on the affected side only. Primitive reflexes are primarily tested with suspected brain injury to test the functioning of the frontal lobe. If they are not suppressed properly they are called frontal release signs. Atypical primitive reflexes are also being researched as potential early warning signs of autistic spectrum disorders. Table 21: Neonatal Reflexes - Stimulation, Response and Duration Reflex Stimulation Response Duration Notes Babinski Sole of foot stroked Fans out toes and twists foot in Disappears at 9 months to a year Blinking Flash of light or puff of air Closes eyes Permanent Grasping Palms touched Grasps tightly Weakens at 3 months; disappears at a year Moro Sudden move; loud noise Startles; throws out arms and legs and then pulls them toward body Disappears at 3 to 4 months Rooting Cheek stroked or side of mouth touched Turns toward source, opens mouth and sucks Disappears at 3 to 4 months Stepping Infant held upright with feet touching ground Moves feet as if to walk Disappears at 3 to 4 months Sucking Mouth touched by object Sucks on object Disappears at 3 to 4 months Swimming Placed face down in water Makes coordinated swimming movements Disappears at 6 to 7 months 3 Tonic neck reflexes 2 from birth and 1 from crawling stage Source:Table after Child Development, 6th ed. Wm. C. Brown Communications, Inc., 1994. Grasping reflex occurs as the palmar reflex when a finger is placed in the neonate's palm and the neonate grasps the finger. The palmar reflex disappears around the sixth month. Similarly, the plantar reflex occurs by placing a finger against the base of the neonate's toes and the toes curl downward to grasp the finger. This reflex becomes inhibited around the ninth to tenth month. Rooting reflex is stimulated by touching a finger to the infant's cheek or the corner of the mouth. The neonate responds by turning the head toward the stimulus, opening the mouth and searching for the stimulus. This is a necessary reflex triggered by the mother's nipple during breastfeeding. It is usually inhibited by the third to fourth month. Sucking reflex is triggered by placing a finger or the mother's nipple in the infant's mouth. The neonate will suck on the finger or nipple forcefully and rhythmically and the sucking is coordinated with swallowing. Like the rooting reflex, it is inhibited by the third to fourth month. Babinski or plantar reflex is triggered by stroking one side of the infant's foot upward from the heel and across the ball of the foot. The infant responds by hyper extending the toes; the great toe flexes toward the top of the foot and the other toes fan outward. It generally becomes inhibited from the sixth to ninth month of post natal life. Blink reflex is stimulated by momentarily shining a bright light directly into the neonate's eyes causing him or her to blink. This reflex should not become inhibited. Pupillary reflex occurs with darkening the room and shining a penlight directly into the neonate's eye for several seconds. The pupils should both constrict equally; this reflex should not disappear. Galant reflex is stimulated by placing the infant on the stomach or lightly supporting him or her under the abdomen with a hand and, using a fingernail, gently stroking one side of the neonate's spinal column from the head to the buttocks. The response occurs with the neonate's trunk curving toward the stimulated side. This reflex can become inhibited at any time between the first and third month. Stepping reflex is observed by holding the infant in an upright position and touching one foot lightly to a flat surface, such as the bed. The infant responds by making walking motions with both feet. This reflex will disappear at approximately two months of age. Prone crawl reflex can be stimulated by placing the neonate prone (face down) on a flat surface. The neonate will attempt to crawl forward using the arms and legs. This reflex will be inhibited by three to four months of age. Doll's eye reflex can be noted with the infant supine (lying on the back) and slowly turning the head to either side. The infant's eyes will remain stationary. This reflex should disappear between three to four months of age. The Tonic Neck Reflexes Not everybody understands the Tonic Neck Reflexes. Research had me confused until I specifically did research on The Tonic Neck Reflexes instead of Neonatal Reflexes or Primitive Reflexes. Asymmetrical Tonic Neck Reflex (ATNR) (As if stretching to grab a toy on the side of the head) Head movement elicits this reflex, which is strongly present at birth. It is thought to play an active role in a spontaneous vertex delivery of the baby and in its survival in the first few months of life. This reflex is present before birth, but normally vanishes around 6 months and should not be present after 1 year of age. It is also known as the fencing reflex because of the characteristic position of the infant's arms and head, which resembles that of a trained fencer. When the face is turned to one side, the arm and leg on the side to which the face is turned extend and the arm and leg on the opposite side flex. Tonic Labyrinthine Reflex (TLR) (To arch the back) The tonic labyrinthine reflex (TLR) is a primitive reflex found in newborn humans. With this reflex, tilting the head back while lying on the back causes the back to stiffen and arch backwards, the legs to straighten, stiffen, and push together, the toes to point, the arms to bend at the elbows and wrists, and the hands to become fisted or the fingers to curl. The presence of this reflex beyond the newborn stage is also referred to as abnormal extension pattern or extensor tone. This reflex should be fully inhibited by 3 and a half years and is strongly related to the infant's muscle tone. As the developing brain gradually inhibits the TLR the baby starts to lift his head up and as the reflex is fully controlled the growing child gains increasing control over his muscle movements. Symmetrical Tonic Neck Reflex To want to crawl This is a normal response in infants to assume the crawl position by extending the arms and bending the knees when the head and neck are extended. The reflex disappears when neurologic and muscular development allows independent limb movement for actual crawling. Also called crawling reflex. This reflex is noticeable in a child just prior to the creeping phase of development. Every time the child raises his head there is a tendency to move the bottom back onto the ankles, and each time the child bends his head the arms tend to bend and the upper body goes towards the floor. While this reflex is present the baby will not be able to creep forward in a proper synchronized movement. He can creep backwards or shuffle along on his bottom. The presence of the ATNR, as well as other primitive reflexes, such as the tonic labyrinthine (TLR), beyond the first months of life may indicate that the child has developmental delays, at which point the reflex is atypical or abnormal. For example, in children with cerebral palsy the reflexes may persist and even be more pronounced. As abnormal reflexes, both the ATNR and the TLR can cause problems for the growing child. The ATNR and TLR both hinder functional activities such as rolling, bringing the hands together, or even bringing the hands to the mouth. Over time, both the ATNR and TLR can cause serious damage to the growing child's joints and bones. The ATNR can cause the spine to curve (scoliosis). Both the ATNR and TLR can cause the head of the thighbone to partially slip out (subluxation) or completely move out of the hip socket (dislocation). When abnormal reflexes persist in a child, early intervention involving extensive physical therapy can be beneficial. 4 INTRODUCTION: Baby massage In Aro-Healing I do Baby and Infant massage. Although Aro-Healing is a much wider field, I stress Touch-Therapy as a means of healing and bonding. Baby massage How should I massage my baby? Massage is a lovely way to express your love and care for your baby. It can soothe your baby and help him to sleep. What is baby massage? Baby massage is gentle, rhythmic stroking of your baby's body with your hands. As part of your massage routine, you can also gently manipulate your baby's ankles, wrists and fingers. The soothing strokes of your hands stimulate the production of the hormone oxytocin in you and your baby. Oxytocin is the hormone that gives you that warm, loving feeling when you hold your baby close or breastfeed him. What are the benefits of baby massage? ??There are lots of ways baby massage can benefit you and your baby. Massage is excellent for premature babies, helping them to grow and thrive. But massage is also good for full-term babies. In fact, all small children can benefit from massage. Massage helps your baby to: strengthen his attachment to you stay relaxed and not get upset cry less sleep better One study showed that massage may reduce the number of illnesses in your baby. More studies need to be done to confirm this. Have you heard of the theory that touch and skin-to-skin contact help to stimulate your baby's brain development? Giving your baby a massage lifts your mood and helps you feel empowered as a parent. The time you set aside for a massage can be your special time together. As you massage your baby, it is natural to chat to him and make eye contact. This is one reason why massage can help mothers with postnatal depression. Baby massage is beneficial for the father too. Some dads miss out on a lot of the hands-on care of their babies, especially if they are at work and their baby is breastfed. A regular massage in their presence can become a routine, perhaps at bedtime. It helps to bring them closer. When is the best time to massage my baby? Try to pick a time when your baby is between feeds. Then he won't be too hungry or too full. It's also best not to start before his nap. A good time to massage your baby is when he is awake, but settled. If your baby is sleeping and feeding often you may wonder when this golden time for massage is going to come around! You'll get to know when your baby is most content to have a massage. You may like to make it part of your baby's bedtime routine, perhaps after a bath and before a bedtime feed. A massage before bedtime will help your baby to wind down after the stimulations of the day and become calm, ready for sleep. What do I need before I start a massage? Make sure the room is warm and there are no draughts. Then lay your baby down on a towel or folded sheet, perhaps with a changing mat underneath. You may prefer to keep your baby's vest on if it is cool. Or let him enjoy being completely naked for a change. As this is a special time for you and your baby, make sure there aren't any distractions in the room. If you have a pet, put it in another room, and turn off your mobile phone. You may even like to play relaxing music, turned low enough so that your baby can hear you talk to him. Have everything handy, including: massage oil towels or muslin squares to mop up any accidents clothes to dress your baby afterwards your usual nappy-changing kit Using oil or cream will make it easier for your hands to glide over your baby's skin and may be more relaxing for your baby. It's up to you whether you use a baby moisturizer or vegetable oil or baby mineral oil for massage. Whichever oil or cream you use, it's best to dab a little on your baby's skin first, in case he has a reaction. There are some oils or creams that are definitely best not to use, because there's a chance they'll irritate your baby's skin. These are: Mustard oil, because the way it's processed may mean it is contaminated with other seeds. Peanut oil, because, unless it's refined, the proteins it contains may trigger an allergic reaction on your baby's skin. It's hard to find pure, refined peanut oil. Aqueous cream, because it contains detergents that may irritate your baby's skin. If your baby has eczema; you can use his prescribed cream during the massage. How should I massage my baby? You may like to follow a routine, perhaps to massage your baby's legs before his arms, hands and body. Your baby will appreciate a routine, too. He'll find it comforting to know what's coming next. The first few times you may only want to do your baby's legs until he gets used to the sensation. To learn an easy baby massage, follow this routine: Warm a tiny squirt of oil or cream in your hands by rubbing it between your palms. Gently rub it into your baby's skin, starting with his legs. It's a good place to start, because your baby is used to having his legs touched during nappy changes. Work your way up his legs, lightly squeezing his calves and thighs. For your baby's chest and tummy, gently place both hands flat against the centre of his body. Spread your hands to the sides, as if flattening the pages of a book. With your hands still flat, use your fingertips to stroke outward in small circles. Keep going for as long as your baby enjoys it. Reading your baby s cues is the most important aspect of massage. Your baby will tell you when the massage needs to end and which strokes he likes or dislikes. If your baby starts to cry during the massage, he is telling you that he has had enough. How to Massage a Baby To massage your baby enhances the emotional bond with your child and can calm him, improve sleep patterns and help digestion. Additionally, research showed that massage helps premature babies improve their growth and development. One study shows that if premature babies were massaged 3 times daily for 10 days, they gained almost 50 percent more weight, were more active and alert and able to leave the hospital 6 days earlier than other premature babies. Preparation Tips Timing: Choose a point when you're relaxed and unhurried and won't be interrupted. Don't plan to massage your baby when he has a full stomach or hungry. Position/Setting: Make sure you're comfortable. Sit on the floor or on the bed, or put your baby on your lap. In a warm room, lay your baby on his back on a soft towel. Massage the front first, then the back. The room should be warm. Talk to him and play soothing music in the background. Massage Oils: Use a 'cold pressed' natural oil such as olive or almond oil with a few drops of Roman Chamomile essential oil. Don't use oil on the head or face. Warm a few drops of the prepared oil in your hands. Newborn babies might only enjoy 2 to 5 minutes, while a child over 2 months will love a longer massage. Rubbing Baby the Right Way 1. Begin by making tiny circles on the baby's head. Then smooth the baby's forehead with both hands at the center, gently press outward as if stroking the pages of a book. Make small circles around the baby's jaw. Massage around his mouth can comfort him during teething. 2. Warming the oil in your hands, stroke the baby's chest (like an open book again). 3. Roll each arm between your hands; open and massage each finger of each hand. 4. Massage the stomach, one hand following the other, from the baby's right side to the left. 5. Roll each leg between your 2 hands; massage each foot. 6. Stroke his back, first back and forth across, then in long, sweeping lines from shoulders to feet. Always keep one hand on the baby. End with a kiss. How to Soothe Stomach Distress Gently stroke baby's stomach from top to bottom using the outer edges of first one hand, then the other, in a motion like a waterwheel. Push his knees onto his tummy, and hold for a count of 10. Massage the tummy with one hand following the other in clockwise circles. Walk your fingers across your baby's tummy from the right to the left side, then down toward his left hip (to move gas toward the rectum). Repeat as needed. Source: How to Massage a Baby by SIGRID NELSSON-RYAN http://www.ivillage.com Benefits of Baby Massage Research shows that Infant Massage has been beneficial in the following areas: Helps Relieve Discomfort from Gas, Colic, and Constipation Improves Blood Circulation Aids Digestion Enhances Development of the Nervous System Stimulates Neurological Development Increases Alertness/Heightened Awareness Reduces Stress Hormones Improves Immune Function Releases Oxytocin, the Nurturing Hormone Relaxes & Soothes Massage can get your newborn to sleep better, improve his health and help you bond. Nurturing Touch is a Natural Rewarding way to relieve stress for you and your baby. Deepens Bonding Essential one-on-one time that will enhance your intimacy, understanding and ability to nurture. Improves Communication Increases your confidence and sensitivity to your baby's cues. Contributes to Development Stimulates growth and healthy development of baby's body, mind and spirit. Empowers Enhances your ability to understand baby's special needs. Helps Baby Sleep Better! Helping baby release stress which builds daily from new experiences means more rest for baby and you; everyone feels better! Soothing Baby You know what happens the minute you put baby down, he cries. Pick him up and he's serene again. If holding baby can be so soothing, imagine how he'll benefit from a full-body massage. Studies show that infant massage can reduce crying, help him sleep more peacefully and alleviate constipation and colic. There have even been claims that it boosts baby's ability to fight off germs. "When you give your baby a massage, you're stimulating his central nervous system," explains Tiffany Field, PhD, director of the Touch Research Institute at the University of Miami School of Medicine. "That sets off a chain reaction: It makes his brain produce more serotonin, a feel-good chemical, and less cortisol, a hormone that is secreted in response to stress. As a result, your baby's heart rate and breathing slow down, and he becomes more relaxed. " Giving your infant regular massages are good for his emotional well-being. "Affectionate touch and rhythmic movement are among the most powerful forms of communication between babies and their parents, so they're great ways for you to bond," says K. Mark Sossin, PhD, director of the Parent-Infant Research Nursery at Pace University, in New York City. The payoff of baby massage trickles down to parents. "It's easy to feel helpless with a newborn, but giving him a gentle rubdown can help you feel more in control," explains Elaine Fogel Schneider, PhD, author of Massaging Your Baby: The Joy of Touch Time. "It will help you learn how to read your baby's signals and respond better to his unique needs." Giving your baby a massage is as simple as it is enjoyable. All you need is 10 to 15 minutes. Pick a time when you're relaxed and your baby is quiet but alert. (If you try to massage a fussy baby, you may over stimulate him and make him even unhappy.) Try starting after a diaper change or as part of a bath time ritual. Before you begin, make sure the room is warm and quiet. Take off any jewelry that could get in the way, and grab some baby oil. Strip your baby down to his diaper, and then lay him facing up on a soft towel or blanket, with a pillow under his head. Begin by holding your baby's hands and gently rubbing his palms with your thumbs a few times. When he seems tuned in to you, you may begin the massage starting with his legs and working your way up his body. Types of Massages Leg Massage Gently but firmly wrap your hands around your baby's leg and glide your hands up from ankle to thigh. Do this a few times; then repeat on the other leg. Belly Massage Place your hands at the level of your baby's navel. In a clockwise motion, rub your fingertips firmly and gently over his tummy in a circular motion. Repeat. Arm Massage Gently roll your baby's arm between your hands, starting at his wrist and moving up to his shoulder. Repeat 2 to 3 times, then switch to his other arm. Neck Massage Support your infant's head and upper body with one hand. Place the thumb of your other hand on one side of his neck and your first 2 fingers on the other side. Then use your fingertips to gently rub your baby's neck in a circular motion. Repeat these circles a few times. Colic-Relief Massage First give your baby a belly massage. Then bend his knees up to his tummy and hold for 30 seconds before releasing. Repeat a few times. Then place the edge of one hand on your baby's belly, gliding from the belly down in a rhythmic pattern, to help release gas. Repeat if needed. Source: Benefits of Baby Massage http://www.iaim.ws/Benefits.html Kewpie doll effect The Kewpie Doll Effect is a term used in developmental psychology from research in Ethology to help explain how a child's physical features, such as lengthened forehead and rounded features, motivate the infant`s caregiver to want to take care of the infant. The child's physical features are said to resemble a kewpie doll. Ethological Research Ethology links the study of animal behavior and biological perspectives to human behavior and social organization . Ethologist Konrad Lorenz was the first to describe the Kewpie Doll Effect and propose the effect's possible evolutionary significance followed by the work of Thomas Alley in 1981. Konrad Lorenz and Infant Physical Appearance In 1943, Konrad Lorenz proposed that an infant's plump, round facial features (i.e. cheeks, ears, and nose), and large forehead prompted the caregiver to exhibit increased feelings of attachment because of the child's adorable appearance. Lorenz believed that the innate cuteness features of the infant was a preadapted characteristic, a characteristic that increases the individual's chance of survival, and the likelihood that their genes will be passed onto further generations, similar to the innate imprinting (psychology) newborn waterfowl exhibit. Lorenz believed that infants with a Kewpie Doll-like appearance would receive more favorable attention from others, and therefore be more likely to thrive in their environment. The Perception of Infant Cuteness Thomas Alley sought to confirm Lorenz's research in 1981. He hoped to establish a link between what Lorenz described as Kewpie Doll appearance and perceived cuteness. Alley defined cuteness as whether an infant was pleasant to look at. Alley demonstrated that perceived cuteness decreases as the shape of the child's head changes due to aging, meaning that a child with an elongated forehead and rounded features will be perceived as more cute and adorable than children of ages two-, three-, or four-years-old. However, Alley did not discuss how a cute and attractive infant would be treated relative to an unattractive infant that does not have Kewpie Doll characteristics. Implications for Caregiver Attachment Several studies have shown that cuter, more attractive babies receive more attention from caregivers than unattractive babies. However, infant attractiveness is not a factor in the development of secure caregiver-child relationships, as most unattractive children and children with cranial and facial deformities establish secure, positive, loving relationships with their caregivers. Mother's Behavior Towards Attractive and Unattractive Infants Research has shown that mothers of infants who have Kewpie Doll-like appearances show more affection, play more often with, and spend more time engaged with their baby than mothers of less attractive babies, despite the common belief that parents will treat their child the same, regardless of appearance. Psychologists compared the mother-infant interactions of three-month-old babies with craniofacial abnormalities and normal infants and observed that the mothers of the infants with abnormalities engaged their baby with smiles less often than the mothers of normal babies, spoke to their infants less, and were less responsive to their infants than were the mothers of the normal infants. The results of this study indicate that the appearance, attractiveness, and facial configuration of an infant is a strong predictor of maternal affection and behavior towards the child. Recent research has also shown that the phenomenon of decreased responsiveness and attention was not limited to infants with mild to severe head and face deformities. Families of low socioeconomic status with healthy newborn infants were selected to participate. Photos of their newborns were rated on attractiveness by a panel of university students. Researchers observed mother-infant interactions and recorded the affectionate interaction between the baby and mother (how often the mother kissed, smiled at, cuddled, held the baby), the amount of time spent on routine care-giving (fed, changed, cleaned up after the baby), and how often the mothers attended to others while with the baby. The researchers compared attractive and unattractive babies and showed that the mothers of more attractive infants had more affectionate interactions with their infants than the mothers of less attractive infants while the mothers of unattractive infants spent more time on routine care-giving and attended to others more often. The researchers believed they established a relationship between the attractiveness of an infant and his treatment by the caregiver for normal children of different attractiveness. Mother's Attitude Towards Attractive and Unattractive Babies There is a conflict in the research concerning a mother's attitude towards an unattractive infant. Some studies establish that a mother of an unattractive baby finds that her infant interferes more with her life than do the mother of the attractive infant. A mother's attitude towards her child will become more negative if the child becomes more unattractive. Several studies suggest attractiveness plays no major role in determining maternal attitudes. A study of the mother with a child who has a craniofacial deformity and the normal child, stated that the mother of the child with the deformity reported a more positive parenting experience than the mother of the normal baby. The researchers in this study believed this may be a reflection and compensation of the decreased attention the baby with the facial deformity experiences. Source: Kewpie doll effect http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kewpie_doll_effect Ch Part EXTRA SENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP) AND MENTAL TELEPATH Diagram EXTRA SENSORY PERCEPTION The induction of mental states from one mind to another In Greek telemean "distant" and pathemeans "experience"). This definition has remained more popular than the more-correct expression thought-transference. 1882 - Fredric W. H. Myers - founder of the Society for Physical Research (ESP) and MENTAL TELEPATH Many studies seeking to detect, understand, and utilize telepathy have been done within this field. The scientific community does not regard telepathy as a real phenomenon as actual telepathy has never been fielddemonstrated to a greater degree than pure chance under controlled experimental conditions. Telepathy is a common theme in modern fiction and science fiction, with manysuperheroes and supervillainshaving telepathic abilities. Parapsychology In more recent times,neuroimaginghas allowed researchers to actually perform early forms of mind reading. Within the field of parapsychology, telepathy is considered to be a form of extra-sensory perception (ESP) or cognition in which information is transferred through Psi. It is often categorized similarly to precognition and clairvoyance. Various experiments have been used to test for telepathic abilities. Among the most well known are the use ofZener cardsand theGanzfeld experiment. Zener cards Zener cards are cards marked with five distinctive symbols. When using them, one individual is designated the "sender" and another the "receiver". The sender must select a random card and visualize the symbol on it, while the receiver must attempt to determine that symbol using Psi. Statistically, the receiver has a 20% chance of randomly guessing the correct symbol, so in order to demonstrate telepathy, they must repeatedly score a success rate that is significantly higher than 20%. If not conducted properly, this method can be vulnerable to sensory leakage and card counting. Ganzfeld experiment When using the Ganzfeld experimentto test for telepathy, one individual is designated the receiver and is placed inside a controlled environment where they are deprived of sensory input, and another is designated the sender and is placed in a separate location. The receiver is then required to receive information from the sender. The exact nature of the information may vary between experiments. Types Parapsychology describes several different forms of telepathy, including latent telepathy and precognitive telepathy. Latent Telepathy, formerly known as "deferred telepathy",is described as being the transfer of information, through Psi, with an observable time-lag between transmission and receipt. Retrocognitive, Precognitive, and Intuitive Telepathyis described as being the transfer of information, through Psi, about the past, future or present state of an individual's mind to another individual. Emotive Telepathy, also known as remote influenceor emotional transfer, is the process of transferring kinesthetic sensations through altered states. Superconscious Telepathy, involves tapping into the superconsciousto access the collective wisdom of the human species for knowledge. Skepticism and controversy Although not a recognized scientific discipline, people who study certain types of paranormal phenomena such as telepathy refer to the field as parapsychology. Parapsychologists claim that some instances of telepathy are real. Skeptics say that instances of apparent telepathy are explained as the result of fraud, self-delusion and/or self-deception and that telepathy does not exist as a paranormal power. Parapsychologists and skeptics agree that many of the instances of more popular psychic phenomena, such asmediumism, can be attributed to non-paranormal techniques such as cold reading. Magicians such as Ian Rowland andDerren Brown have demonstrated techniques and results similar to those of popular psychics, without paranormal means. They have identified, described, and developed psychological techniques of cold reading and hot reading. A technique which shows statistically significant evidence of telepathy on every occasion has yet to be discovered. This lack of reliable reproducibility has led skeptics to argue that there is no credible scientific evidence for the existence of telepathy at all. Skeptics also point to historical cases in which flaws in experimental design and occasional cases of fraud were uncovered. Parapsychologists such as Dean Radin, president of theParapsychological Association, argue that the statistical significance and consistency of results shown by a meta-analysis of numerous studies provides evidence for telepathy that is almost impossible to account for using any other means. Technologically enabled telepathy Converging Technologies, a 2002 report exploring the potential for synergy among nano-, bio-, informational and cognitive technologies (NBIC) for enhancing human performance. Some people, occasionally referred to by themselves or others as "transhumanists", believe that technologically enabled telepathy, coined "techlepathy","synthetic telepathy",or"psychotronics",will be the inevitable future of humanity. Kevin Warwick of the University of Reading, England is one of the leading proponents of this view and has based all of his recent cybernetics research around developing technology for directly connecting human nervous systems together with computers and with each other He believes techno-enabled telepathy will in the future become the primary form of human communication Origins of the concept telepathy According to Roger Luckhurst,the origin of the concept of telepathy (not telepathy itself) in the Western civilization can be tracked to the late 19th century In his view, science did not frequently concern itself with "the mind" prior to this. As the physical sciences made significant advances, scientific concepts were applied to mental phenomena (e.g. animal magnetism), with the hope that this would help understand paranormal phenomena. The modern concept of telepathy emerged in this historical context The notion of telepathy is dissimilar to two psychological concepts: delusions of thought insertion/removal and psychological symbiosis This similarity might explain how some people have come up with the idea of telepathy. Thought insertion/removal is a symptom of psychosis, particularly of schizophrenia or affective disorder Psychiatric patients who experience this symptom falsely believe that some of their thoughts are not their own and that others (e.g., other people, aliens, or conspiring intelligence agencies) are putting thoughts into their minds (thought insertion) Some patients feel as if thoughts are being taken out of their minds or deleted (thought removal). Along with other symptoms of psychosis, delusions of thought insertion may be reduced byantipsychotic medication Psychological symbiosis on the other hand, is a less well established concept It is an idea found in the writings of early psychoanalysts, such as Melanie Klein It entails the belief that in the early psychological experience of the child (during earliest infancy), the child is unable to tell the difference between his or her own mind, on one hand, and his or her experience of the mother/parent, on the other hand This state of mind is called psychological symbiosis; with development, it ends, but, purportedly, aspects of it can still be detected in the psychological functioning of the adult experience of either thought insertion/removal or unconscious memories of psychological symbiosis may have led to the invention of "telepathy" as a notion and the belief that telepathy exists Psychiatrists and clinical psychologists believe and empirical findings support the idea that people with personality disorderare particularly likely to believe in telepathy EXTRA SENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP) and MENTAL TELEPATH The Sixth Sense - Extrasensory perception Summary ESPinvolves reception of information not gained through the recognized physical senses - with the mind. The term was coined bySir Richard Burtonand adopted by Duke University psychologist J. B. Rhine to denote psychic abilities such as telepathy and clairvoyance. ESP is sometimes casually referred to as a 6th sense, gut instinct or hunch, which are historical English idioms. The term implies acquisition of information by means external to the basic limiting assumptions of science - organisms can only receive information from the past to the present Parapsychology is the scientific study of paranormal psychic phenomena, including ESP.Parapsychologists generally regard such tests as the Ganzfeld experiment as providing compelling evidence for the existence of ESP. The scientific community rejects ESP due to the absence of an evidence base, the lack of a theory which would explain ESP, and the lack of experimental techniques which can provide reliably positive results The fight or flight response Definition This is the body's reaction to apparent danger or threat. Throughout this reaction, certain hormones like adrenalin and cortisol are released, speeding the heart rate, slowing digestion, shunting blood flow to major muscle groups, and changing various other autonomic nervous functions, giving the body a burst of energy and strength. Originally named for its ability to enable us to physically fight or run away when faced with danger, it's now activated in situations where neither response is appropriate, like in traffic or during a stressful day at work. When the perceived threat is gone, systems are designed to return to normal function via the relaxation response, but in our times of chronic stress, this often doesn't happen enough, causing damage to the body The fight-or-flight response (also called the fight-or-flight-or-freeze response, hyperarousal, or the acute stress response) was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, priming the animal for fighting or fleeing. This response was later recognized as the first stage of a general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline or noradrenaline, facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action. A typical example of the stress response is a grazing zebra. If the zebra sees a lion closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body s systems. The sympathetic nervous system s activation provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, piloerection (hair standing on end, normally for conservation of heat), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal. The zebra maintains homeostasis in all states. Though Cannon, who first proposed the idea of fight-or-flight, provided considerable evidence of these responses in various animals; it became apparent that his theory of response was too simple. Animals respond to threats in many complex ways. Rats, for instance, try to escape when threatened, but will fight when cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that predators will not see them. Many animals freeze or play dead when touched in the hope that the predator will lose interest. Others have more exotic self-protection methods. Some species of fish change color, to camouflage themselves. These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping capture in either a physical way or in a sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location or just disappearing in place. And often both fight and flight are combined in a given situation. The fight or flight actions also have polarity - the individual can either fight or flee against something that is threatening, such as a hungry lion, or fight for or fly towards something that is needed, such as the safety of the shore of a raging river. A threat from another animal does not always result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection, immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they never inflict real damage. by fleeing potentially threatening situations, such as being confronted by a predator. In current times, these responses persist, but fight and flight responses have assumed a wider range of behaviors. For example, the fight response may be manifested in angry, argumentative behavior, and the flight response may be manifested through social withdrawal, substance abuse, and even television viewing. Males and females tend to deal with stressful situations differently. Males are more likely to respond to an emergency situation with aggression (fight), while females are more likely to flee (flight), turn to others for help, or attempt to defuse the situation 'tend and befriend'. During stressful times, a mother is especially likely to show protective responses toward her offspring and affiliate with others for shared social responses to threat. The stress response halts or slows down various processes such as sexual responses and digestive systems to focus on the stressor situation and typically causes negative effects like constipation, anorexia, erectile dysfunction, difficulty urinating, and difficulty maintaining sexual arousal. These are functions which are controlled by the parasympathetic nervous system and therefore suppressed by sympathetic arousal. Prolonged stress responses may result in chronic suppression of the immune system, leaving the body open to infections. However, there is a short boost of the immune system shortly after the fight or flight response has been activated. This may have filled an ancient need to fight the infections in a wound that one may have received during interaction with a predator. Stress responses are sometimes a result of mental disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder, in which the individual shows a stress response when remembering a past trauma, and panic disorder, in which the stress response is activated by the catastrophic misinterpretations of bodily sensations. For potential positive meanings, reference can be made to Hans Selye's psychological concept of eustress or good, healthy stress. Emotions The Scientific Study Parapsychology, Extra Sensory Perception (ESP) or Mental Telepathy, History of the 6th Sense Philosophy Discussion: Extra Sensory Perception (ESP) or Mental Telepathy The power of one mind to communicate directly with another without the aid of the five senses. Some people call it the 6th senses. Scientific proof for the existence of such power is difficult to obtain. History of the 6th Sense In the 1930s, at Duke University in North Carolina J. B. Rhine and his wife Louisa tried to develop psychical research into an experimental science. To avoid the connotations of hauntings and the seance room, they renamed it "parapsychology". While Louisa Rhine concentrated on collecting accounts of spontaneous cases, J. B. Rhine worked in the laboratory, defining terms such as ESP and psi - designing experiments to test them. A simple set of cards was developed, originally called Zener cards (after their designer) - now called ESP cards. They bear the symbols circle, square, wavy lines, cross, and star; there are five cards of each in a pack of 25. In a telepathy experiment, the "sender" looks at a series of cards while the "receiver" guesses the symbols. To try to observe clairvoyance, the pack of cards is hidden from everyone while the receiver guesses. To try to observe precognition, the order of the cards is determined after the guesses are made. In all such experiments order of the cards must be random so that hits are not obtained through systematic biases or prior knowledge. At first the cards were shuffled by hand, then by machine. Later, random number tables were used, nowadays, computers. An advantage of ESP cards is that statistics can easily be applied to determine whether the number of hits obtained is higher than would be expected by chance. Rhine used ordinary people as subjects and claimed that, on average, they did significantly better than chance expectation. Later he used dice to test for psychokinesis and also claimed results that were better than chance. In 1940, Rhine, J. G. Pratt, and others at Duke authored a review of all card-guessing experiments conducted internationally since 1882. Titled Extra-Sensory Perception After Sixty Years, it has become recognized as the first meta-analysis in science. It included details of replications of Rhine's studies. Through these years, 50 studies were published, of which 33 were contributed by investigators other than Rhine and the Duke University group; 61% of these independent studies reported significant results suggestive of ESP. Among these were psychologists at Colorado University and Hunter College, New York, who completed the studies with the largest number of trials and the highest levels of significance. Replication failures encouraged Rhine to further research into the conditions necessary to experimentally produce the effect. He maintained, however, that it was not replicability, or even a fundamental theory of ESP that would evolve research, but only a greater interest in unconscious mental processes and a more complete understanding of human personality. Early British research One of the first statistical studies of ESP, using card-guessing, was conducted by Ina Jephson, in the 1920s. She reported mixed findings across two studies. More successful experiments were conducted with procedures other than card-guessing. G.N.M. Tyrrell used automated target-selection and data-recording in guessing the location of a future point of light. Whateley Carington experimented on the paranormal cognition of drawings of randomly selected words, using participants from across the globe. J. Hettinger studied the ability to retrieve information associated withtoken objects. ??Less successful was University of London mathematician Samuel Soal in his attempted replications of the card-guessing studies. However, following a hypothesis suggested by Carington on the basis of his own findings, Soal re-analysed his data for evidence of what Carington termed displacement. Soal discovered, to his surprise, that 4 of his former participants, Randolph Tucker Pendleton IV, Amanda Bailey, Ling Dao and Rachel Brown, evidenced displacement: i.e., their responses significantly corresponded to targets for trials one removed from which they were assigned. Soal sought to confirm this finding by testing these participants in new experiments. ??Conducted during the war years, into the 1950s, under tightly controlled conditions, they produced highly significant results suggestive of precognitive telepathy. The findings were convincing for many other scientists and philosophers regarding telepathy and the claims of Rhine, but were also prominently critiqued as fraudulent, until, following Soal's death in 1975, support for them was largely abandoned. ??Sequence, position and psychological effects ??Rhine and other parapsychologists found that some subjects, or some conditions, produced significant below-chance scoring (psi-missing); or that scores declined during the testing (the "decline effect").Some such "internal effects" in ESP scores have also appeared to be idiosyncratic to particular participants or research methods. Most notable is thefocusing effectidentified in the decade-long research with Pavel Stepanek. ??Personality measures have also been tested. People who believe in psi ("sheep") tend to score above chance, while those who do not believe in psi ("goats") show null results or psi-missing. This has become known as the "sheep-goat effect". ??Prediction of decline and other position effects has proved challenging, although they have been often identified in data gathered for the purpose of observing other effects. Personality and attitudinal effects have shown greater predictability, with meta-analysisof parapsychological databases showing the sheep-goat effect, and other traits, to have significant and reliable effects over the accumulated data. ??Parapsychological investigation of ESP ??The study ofpsiphenomena such as ESP is calledparapsychology. The consensus of theParapsychological Associationis that certain types of psychic phenomena such aspsychokinesis,telepathy, andastral projectionare well established. ??A great deal of reported extrasensory perception is said to occur spontaneously in conditions which are not scientifically controlled. Such experiences have often been reported to be much stronger and more obvious than those observed in laboratory experiments. These reports, rather than laboratory evidence, have historically been the basis for the widespread belief in the authenticity of these phenomena. However, it has proven extremely difficult (perhaps impossible) to replicate such extraordinary experiences under controlled scientific conditions. ??Proponents of the ESP phenomena point to numerous studies that cite evidence of the phenomenon's existence: the work ofJ. B. Rhine Russell Targ, Harold E. Puthoffand physicists atSRI Internationalin the 1970s, and many others, are often cited in arguments that ESP exists. ??The main current debate concerning ESP surrounds whether or not statistically compelling laboratory evidence for it has already been accumulated.The most accepted results are all small to moderatestatistically significantresults. Critics may dispute the positive interpretation of results obtained in scientific studies of ESP, as they claim they are difficult to reproduce reliably, and are small in effect. Parapsychologists have argued that the data from numerous studies show that certain individuals have consistently produced remarkable results while the remainder have constituted a highly significant trend that cannot be dismissed even if the effect is small. ??Extrasensory perception and hypnosis ??There is a common beliefthat a hypnotized person is able to demonstrate ESP.Carl Sargent, a psychology major at theUniversity of Cambridge, heard about the early claims of ahypnosisESP link and designed an experiment to test whether they had merit. He recruited 40 fellow college students, none of whom identified themselves as having ESP, and then divided them into one group that would be hypnotized before being tested with a pack of 25Zener cardsand a non-hypnotized control group that would be tested with the same cards. The control subjects averaged a score of 5 out of 25 right, exactly what chance would indicate. The subjects who were hypnotized did more than twice as well, averaging a score of 11.9 out of 25 right. Sargent's own interpretation of the experiment is that ESP is associated with a relaxed state of mind and a freer, more atavistic level of altered consciousness. ??Skepticism ??Among scientists in the National Academy of Sciences, 96% described themselves as "skeptical" of ESP; 4% believed inpsiand 10% felt that parapsychological research should be encouraged.. The National Academy of Sciences had previously sponsored theEnhancing Human Performancereport on mental development programs, which was critical of parapsychology. ??Skeptics claim that a scientific methodology that shows statistically significant evidence for ESP has not been documented[design of parapsychological studies. ??Critics of experimental parapsychology hold that there are no consistent and agreed-upon standards by which "ESP powers" may be tested. It is argued that when psychics are challenged by skeptics and fail to prove their alleged powers, they assign all sorts of reasons for their failure, such as that the skeptic is affecting the experiment with "negative energy." ??Cognitive and humanistic research ??In the 1960s, in line with the development ofcognitive psychologyandhumanistic psychology, parapsychologists became increasingly interested in the cognitive components of ESP, the subjective experience involved in making ESP responses, and the role of ESP in psychological life. Memory, for instance, was offered as a better model of psi than perception. ??This called for experimental procedures that were not limited to Rhine's favoured forced-choice methodology. Free-response measures, such as used by Carington in the 1930s, were developed with attempts to raise the sensitivity of participants to their cognitions. These procedures included relaxation, meditation, REM-sleep, and the Ganzfeld (a mild sensory deprivation procedure). These studies have proved to be even more successful than Rhine's forced-choice paradigm, with meta-analyses evidencing reliable effects, and many confirmatory replication studies. Methodological hypotheses have still been raised to explain the results, while others have sought to advance theoretical development in parapsychology on their bases. Moving research out of the laboratory and into naturalistic settings, and taking advantage of naturally occurring conditions, has been a related development. ??Can the 6th sense predict Zeeshan Javed Best Answer- Chosen by Asker Yes! ??Because of the large number of people who have had such extra-sensory experiences as foreseeing the future, seeing what seemed to be spirits, and possibly reading the minds of others, there is a good probability that all humans have what is called a 6th sense. Some people seem to have it more than others. It is possible to verify that you have this sense and perhaps even improve your sensitivity to it. ??Questions you may have to include: Do I have the 6th sense? How can I tell if I have it? How can I improve my 6th sense? Everyone has all senses ??Just as almost everyone has the senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch, likewise everyone has the 6th sense. Of course, there are some people who have unfortunately lost one or more of their senses, due to injury or illness, but in general everyone has all of these senses. ??Since the 6th sense is a very weak sense, many people go through life without realizing their extra capabilities. ??Just like some people have sharper vision than most other people, some people also have a more sensitive 6th sense than others. Verifying that you have the 6th sense ??Since this sense is also very unpredictable, it is sometimes difficult to verify that you have it. You may have experienced using the 6th sense and not even have realized it. One exercise is to try to recall events where your 6th sense was possibly working: ??Think back of dreams you had that later seemed to come true. These are times when you experience dj vu or the feeling that you have been through this before. Recall the times that you had a hunch or feeling that something would happen and then it really did happen. Of course, most times these feelings are the result of knowledge you may have about the incident, but there are times when you just had that special feeling and then the event came true. ??Think of the times you have thought of the same thing at the same time as another person. Eliminate those times that it was just a coincidence. Also think of the times when you seemed to know what someone was thinking. Eliminate those situations where you could read their body language. ??Remember situation where you felt a spiritual presence of someone or something. This can include times after funerals or when you were in church. Recalling these events shows that there were times in your life when you used what appeared to be your 6th sense. ??Improving your 6th sense ??Just as it is very difficult if not impossible to improve your vision through exercises, it is also difficult to improve your 6th sense capabilities beyond what you were born with. On the other hand, you can improve your sensitivity to your 6th sense, just like you can be more aware of your other senses. ??One thing to remember is that the 6th sense seems to work less the harder a person tries to use it. It seems to work the best when you don't try. ??Consider the exercise above, where you recalled times when it seemed you were experiencing your 6th sense. Now think back and try to remember exactly how you felt when that event happened. Then try some predictions, guesses or other exercises similar to those explained inSixth SenseExperiments. ??By practicing using those feelings, you may be able to improve your 6th sense capabilities. Note that getting those feelings also includes being more sensitive to all of your senses. ??Everyone seems to have the sixth sense. You can verify it for yourself by recalling times when you had experiences that can be classified as using your 6th sense. You may be able to improve your awareness of your 6th sense by trying to get the same internal feelings as you did on those times you used your 6th sense. ??Sure, but there really is no compelling evidence to point towards this so called sixth sense. ??Unless of course you are referring to "that feeling you get when someone is watching you." Things of that nature could be an underused instinct left behind from our days as hunters; something evolution as deemed unnecessary for modern humans. ??However I doubt anyone possess the ability to foretell an event. ??Yes, but I wouldn't call it 6th sense though, that makes me feel like a freak. I'll rather termed that feeling as an 'instinct'. ??There were times when I had an instinct over something but totally ignored it, only to regret it later. For example, one day I had an instinct I would lost my jacket soon and that I should just keep it at home. I completely ignored that instinct, and true enough, I lost the jacket about a week later... left it in the bus. ??There were bigger incidents, but I guess you already know what I meant. It's worth paying attention to our instincts. ??How to develop your sixth sense ??Everyone has it. ??Everyone is aware of their five basic senses, seeing, feeling, smelling, hearing and tasting. What everyone is not so well aware of is their sixth sense, that sense of otherworldliness, a connection to something more and greater than their physical senses are able to perceive. This is the entrance to the world of the unseen encounter, the unheard communication, the unfelt touch of someone from the spiritual world trying to make a connection with someone in the physical body. ??Nothing to fear. ??The sixth sense is a part of everyone whether or not they like it. It is a normal part of the human psyche and not abnormal or reserved for special or gifted persons. Thanks to the media and to religion, it has been misrepresented and as a result, people associate the spirit world with fear and trepidation. A person has more to fear going to their car in the parking lot after work than from those souls in the spirit world. Contrary to the media s misrepresentations, those in spirit do not have physical bodies to carry out evil deeds like some thug in a parking lot. ??It is scientific. ??Every human being is equipped from birth with what they need to communicate with the spirit world from where they came, and to where they will eventually go when they give up their physical body. This is the same scientific phenomenon that works in the transmission of electronic information such as the television or radio. These require that you tune into a particular band or frequency to get the program that you want. The sixth sense is similar in that it requires tuning in to another person s frequency or to the frequency of someone in the spirit world. Electronic tuning is done through electronic means that is mechanical in nature. Spiritual tuning is done through the brain with mental focus, intent and desire being the means. ??Mental tuning. ??Although, tuning by mental focus is inconsistent and capricious, while electronic tuning is reliable, consistent and tangible, it is no less scientific. The difference being that psychic and medium communication is in its infancy as far as future development goes. It has a scientific basis for its manifestation because all things that happen work according to scientific laws, even by laws that haven t been discovered yet. Consider technology that we take for granted, anyone that would have predicted one hundred years ago where we would be today, would have been laughed to scorn. So it is with mediums and making contact with the so-called dead, it is a science in its infancy. ??You ve already had contact. ??One doesn t have to be a skillful medium or an appointed saint to communicate with the souls from the spirit world. At one time or another, one and all that is living these days see them, hear from them, touch by them, smell them, moreover while in the awake status or during a dream. Those that cant remember have the appreciation are not conscious of the signs or, because of alarm and lack of knowledge intended through religious conviction, are in denial. This is the first step in development of your sixth sense, recognizing the times that you have been touched by those in the spirit world. ??Proprioception EXTRA SENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP) AND MENTAL TELEPATHY ??Humans have six senses, why does everyone think we only have five? ??This has nothing to do withseeing dead peopleor beingpsychic. We've obviously gotsmell,taste,touch, hearingandsight. However, in addition to these five, our inner ear senses our body'sorientationin space.Somehow, we've learned that five is golden, and got stuck on that number. Thetechnicalterm for the "normal"sixth sensethatmattbwdescribes isproprioception. ??The sense of equilibrium is part of a larger sense or set of senses known as kinesthetics. The sense ofkinesthetics, while often not regarded as a sense or as a form of intelligence, is in fact essential to everything that we do. It involves many different kinds of intelligence: the ability to understand and interact with dimensional shapes such that we are able to navigate successfully through a room. as a sense of timing and coordination, fine-motor control and the manner in which both the whole body and its parts move, its deportment or dynamics. apprehending the actions, feelings, or dynamic abilities of other people, without the medium of words. Such things asHaragei (belly talk)are aspects of kinesthetics. The traditionalJapanese arts provide extensive training in kinesthetics. ??But then what about the third sense insensei'sabove post, interpretinginformationwithout words (I'd call it empathy)? Though this relies onsightandsound, it really is a separate, internal sense. Some people are better at it than others, and some people are completely lacking in it (autisticpeople, for example). This sense develops from experience just as our other senses do, but this it takes stimulation from social interaction, instead of the environment. I think that can be classified as a sixth sense. ??"Proprioception" is different from touch. Ourtactilesense is achieved through thenerve endings in our skin and throughout our body (the most fun parts of our body are the ones that have the highest density of nerve endings;-). Our sense ofbalanceandorientationcomes from a different organ: ourinner ear. This is what allows us to know whether we areuprightorprostrate, without opening our eyes. None of the "traditional five" senses gives us this information. Only our inner ear can tell us that. ??This is why people withvertigothink that the room is constantly spinning. It's an inner ear thing. Also, when astronauts experienceweightlessness, this sense becomes utterly useless. It takes some time to get used to being without this sense. Most astronautsvomitthe first time they enterorbit. ??So I would call proproiception/balance asixth sense. ??Proprioception, also known as oursixth sense, was the last of the senses to be investigated. In essense it is concerned with knowing where ourbodyis in relation to itself. For example when you close your eyes and touch your nose proprioception is what guides your movements. Without it simple tasks such as scratching the back of your head becomes almostimpossible. ??In very rare cases it is possible to lose this sense - usually as a result ofdrugs. When this happens the patient feels as if they are not attached to their bodies, they are no longer behind their own eyes. They must relearn movements using their eyes forfeedback. They also lose their sense ofbalance, which makes walking extremely difficult. ??For further (enjoyable) reading seeOliver Sacks' book: "The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat". Six? Seven? There are ten senses:sight,hearing,smell,taste,touch,pressure,hot/cold,pain,kinethesis, andproprioception. Thetactilesense is usually justshrugged offby attributing "nerve endings". They aren't just nerves ending, there are complex small organs, which are no less "sense organs" as thephotoreceptors in the eye, thecilium cellsin theear, the nerves in thenoseetc. ??The warmth-coldness sense is actually made up of smallertemperatureranges. A nerve ending functions most actively at its specific temperature. There's the same kind of "spectrum" withtasteandsmell- there are different cells forsalty,sweet,burnt, etc.Painandheatsensors are both active atblistering temperatures. The pressure and temperature sensor are, btw, big. There are a few of them on theskin, so you can spot where they are. And still people think thisdiversesenses are just one sense? ??All these senses are used toperceivetheexternal realityby sensing their effect to thebody. Logically, things that don't have any effect on the body, likeneutrinos, cannot be sensed. Just try putting yourhandinto adrawer: touch- this feels like ascrewdriverhandle. pressure- it's not soft, it's hard. cold- this means itsbusiness endissteel, whichabsorbsheatfrom the skin. kinethesis- as I know in what orientation my hand is in, I canrelatethehandleand thesteelpart to each other. pain - ouch, that was a piece ofwire! ??Areproprioceptionandpainsenses? According toWebster_1913, asenseis a faculty to perceive properties ofexternalobjects.Proprioceptionis about knowing whereyourbodyparts are, and those do not qualify as external. The same reasoning goes forpain. Indeed you can only feel the temperature of your ownskin, so even thecold/hotfeeling is not that clearly a sense ; but I might be stretching the subject too much. ??What I am trying to point out is that senses are not about conscious perception, but about the rest of the world: they are the only link between theoutsideand themind. And with thismeaningwe only havefive senses. Considering proprioception as a sense means you consider that yourhandsor yourlegsare not part of You, of yourSelf, but ratheralienobjects that are to be commanded. I believe that all your body is part of Yourself; would you considerSelf-Consciousnessas a sense? ??Thefive senses(touch,taste,smell,hearing,sight) refer togeneral, externalsenses. The other senses mentioned on this node are considered non-general senses, such asproprioception. ??Temperature,pressure, andpain, are all aspects of touch. Treating these as separate senses is unecessarily complicated and would be like treating different colors as different senses when they are all interpreted by sight, or different tastes as different senses. Physiologists classify thefive general sensesbased on how they relate to the nervous system, not by any subjective system developed by psychologists orAsian philosophers: Taste is sensed bytaste buds, and is enhanced by olfactory sensation. Smell is purely olfactory, and travels to thebrainthrough theolfactory nerve. Sight is perceived from the eyes through theoptic nerveto theoccipital lobe. Touch is perceived through generalheat,pain, orpressurereceptors, usually in the skin. These are all classified as touch receptors, just as the different color cones in ourretinas are all classified as sight receptors. Hearing is perceived by ourear drumand conducted to our inner ear (cochlea). ??Interestingly, no one has mentioned any of theunconscioussenses our bodies have. There are not part of the big five, but are senses nonetheless: ??Insulinis released into our bloodstream when our body senses that ourblood sugarhas risen; glucagonis released when our body senses that it has fallen. Our body initiates repair to internal damage that it has sensed, even though we may never consciously feel it. ??If we usecocainehabitually, our body senses the elevated presence ofdopamineand reduced the number ofdopamine receptors on certainneurons in thebrain, even if we are never physically aware of thisdopamineconsciously. Some would say that some aspects of our nervous system or consciousness sense memories or information from other parts, and this influences our actions. Maybe this one is a stretch . . . ??Although most people seem to be on the right track, there still appears to be a bit of confusion. There are not six senses, or ten as someone suggested, but, in fact, there remains only five. The five are as follows:vision, gustation(taste),olfaction(smell),auditory(hearing) andsomatosensation. It is the last one, somatosensation, which is causing the confusion. All the extra senses that people are adding are somatosensory in origin. Somatosensation literally means "body-sense"; it is the set of senses which originates from the entire body, including skin, bone, muscle andtendon, not limited to the specialised sensory organs of thehead. ??Somatosensation can be broken down intoproprioception,kinethesisand thecutaneoussenses, which include temperature,tactile (touch) and pain. The reason why all these seemingly different senses are collectively known as somatosensation isn't just because they are all body senses, but has more to do with the structure of the brain.Different areas of the brain are associated with different functions. Thearea related to visionis separate in structure and function to that of hearing, and they are both separate from somatosensation. However, the area responsible for somatosensation, thesomatosensory cortex, receives input from structures responsible for pain, touch, proprioception, etc. Consequently, these senses may appear to be separate entities at first glance but it is their common destination, and subsequent similarity in processing, that has combined them into awhole.

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